Things a Boy Should Know About Electricity Second Edition — Inside the Classic

ABOUT FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY.

=1. Some Simple Experiments.= Have you ever shuffled your feet along over the carpet on a winter's evening and then quickly touched your finger to the nose of an unsuspecting friend? Did he jump when a bright spark leaped from your finger and struck him fairly on the very tip of his sensitive nasal organ?

Did you ever succeed in proving to the pussy-cat, Fig. 1, that something unusual occurs when you thoroughly rub his warm fur with your hand? Did you notice the bright sparks that passed to your hand when it was held just above the cat's back? You should be able to see, hear, and feel these sparks, especially when the air is dry and you are in a dark room.

Did you ever heat a piece of paper before the fire until it was real hot, then lay it upon the table and rub it from end to end with your hand, and finally see it cling to the wall?

Were you ever in a factory where there were large belts running rapidly over pulleys or wheels, and where large sparks would jump to your hands when held near the belts?

If you have never performed any of the four experiments mentioned, you should try them the first time a chance occurs. There are dozens of simple, fascinating experiments that may be performed with this kind of electricity.

=2. Name.= As this variety of electricity is made, or generated, by the friction of substances upon each other, it is called _frictional_ electricity. It is also called _static_ electricity, because it generally stands still upon the surface of bodies and does not "flow in currents" as easily as some of the other varieties. Static electricity may be produced by induction as well as by friction.

=3. History.= It has been known for over 2,000 years that certain substances act queerly when rubbed. Amber was the first substance upon which electricity was produced by friction, and as the Greek name for amber is _elektron_, bodies so affected were said to be _electrified_. When a body, like ebonite, is rubbed with a flannel cloth, we say that it becomes _charged with electricity_. Just what happens to the ebonite is not clearly understood. We know, however, that it will attract light bodies, and then quickly repel them if they be conductors. Fig. 2 shows a piece of tissue-paper jumping toward a sheet of ebonite that has been electrified with a flannel cloth.

=4. Conductors and Non-Conductors.= Electricity can be produced upon glass and ebonite because they do not carry or conduct it away. If a piece of iron be rubbed, the electricity passes from the iron into the earth as fast as it is generated, because the iron is a _conductor_ of electricity. Glass is an _insulator_ or _non-conductor_. Frictional electricity resides upon the outside, only, of conductors. A hollow tin box will hold as great a charge as a solid piece of metal having the same outside size and shape. When frictional electricity passes from one place to another, sparks are produced. Lightning is caused by the passage of static electricity from a cloud to the earth, or from one cloud to another. In this case air forms the conductor. (For experiments, see "Study," Chapter VII.)

=5. Electroscopes.= A piece of carbon, pith, or even a small piece of damp tissue-paper will serve as an electroscope to test the presence of static electricity. The pith is usually tied to a piece of silk thread which is a non-conductor. Fig. 3 shows the ordinary form of _pith-ball electroscope_.

The _leaf electroscope_ is a very delicate apparatus. Gold-leaf is generally used, but aluminum-leaf will stand handling and will do for all ordinary purposes. Fig. 4 shows a common form, the glass being used to keep currents of air from the leaves and at the same time to insulate them from the earth.

Electroscopes are used to show the presence, relative amount, or kind of static electricity on a body. (See "Study," Chapter XI.)

=6. Two Kinds of Electrification.= It can be shown that the electrification produced on all bodies by friction is not the same; for example, that generated with glass and silk is not the same as that made with ebonite and flannel. It has been agreed to call that produced by glass and silk _positive_, and that by ebonite and flannel _negative_. The signs + and - are used for positive and negative.

=7. Laws of Electrification.= (1) Charges of the same kind repel each other; (2) charges of unlike kinds attract each other; (3) either kind of a charge attracts and is attracted by a neutral body.

=8. Static Electric Machines.= In order to produce static electricity in quantities for experiments, some device is necessary.

The _electrophorus_ (e-lec-troph´-o-rus) is about the simplest form of machine. Fig. 5 shows a simple electrophorus in which are two insulators and one conductor. The ebonite sheet E S is used with a flannel cloth to generate the electricity. The metal cover E C is lifted by the insulating handle E R. The cover E C is placed upon the thoroughly charged sheet E S, and then it is touched for an instant with the finger, before lifting it by E R. The charge upon E C can then be removed by bringing the hand near it. The bright spark that passes from E C to the hand indicates that E C has discharged itself into the earth. The action of the electrophorus depends upon induction. (For experiments, details of action, induced electrification, etc., see "The Study of Elementary Electricity and Magnetism by Experiment," Chapters VIII. and IX.)

_The first electric machine_ consisted of a ball of sulphur fastened to a spindle which could be turned by a crank. By holding the hands or a pad of silk upon the revolving ball, electricity was produced.

=9. The Cylinder Electric Machine= consists, as shown in Fig. 6, of a glass cylinder so mounted that it can be turned by a crank. Friction is produced by a pad of leather C, which presses against the cylinder as it turns. Electric sparks can be taken from the large "conductors" which are insulated from the earth. The opposite electricities unite with sparks across D and E. If use is to be made of the electricity, either the rubber or the prime conductor must be connected with the ground. In the former case positive electricity is obtained; in the latter, negative.

=10. The Plate Electrical Machine.= Fig. 7 also shows an old form of machine. Such machines are made of circular plates of glass or ebonite, two rubbing pads being usually employed, one on each side of the plate. One operator is seen on an insulated stool (Fig. 7), the electricity passing through him before entering the earth by way of the body of the man at the right.

=11. The Toepler-Holtz Machine=, in one form, is shown in Fig. 8. The electricity is produced by the principle of induction, and not by mere friction. This machine, used in connection with condensers, produces large sparks.

=12. The Wimshurst Machine= is of recent date, and not being easily affected by atmospheric changes, is very useful for ordinary laboratory work. Fig. 9 shows one form of this machine.

=13. Influence Machines for Medical Purposes= are made in a large variety of forms. A Wimshurst machine is generally used as an exciter to charge the plates of the large machine when they lose their charge on account of excessive moisture in the atmosphere. Fig. 10 shows a large machine.

=14. Uses of Electrical Machines.= Static electricity has been used for many years in the laboratory for experimental purposes, for charging condensers, for medical purposes, etc. It is now being used for X-ray work, and considerable advancement has been made within a few years in the construction and efficiency of the machines.

With the modern machines large sparks are produced by merely turning a crank, enough electricity being produced to imitate a small thunderstorm. The sparks of home-made lightning will jump several inches.

Do not think that electricity is generated in a commercial way by static electric machines. The practical uses of static electricity are very few when compared with those of current electricity from batteries and dynamos.

=15. Condensation of Static Electricity.= By means of apparatus called _condensers_, a terrific charge of static electricity may be stored. Fig. 11 shows the most common form of condenser, known as the _Leyden jar_. It consists of a glass jar with an inside and outside coating of tin-foil.

_To charge_ the jar it is held in the hand so that the outside coating shall be connected with the earth, the sparks from an electric machine being passed to the knob at the top, which is connected by a chain to the inside coating.

_To discharge_ the jar, Fig. 12, a conductor with an insulating handle is placed against the outside coat; when the other end of the conductor is swung over towards the knob, a bright spark passes between them. This device is called a discharger. Fig. 13 shows a discharge through ether which the spark ignites.

=16. The Leyden Battery=, Fig. 14, consists of several jars connected in such a way that the area of the inner and outer coatings is greatly increased. The battery has a larger capacity than one of its jars. (For Experiments in Condensation, see "Study," Chapter X.)

=17. Electromotive Force of Static Electricity.= Although the sparks of static electricity are large, the _quantity_ of electricity is very small. It would take thousands of galvanic cells to produce a spark an inch long. While the quantity of static electricity is small, its potential, or electromotive force (E. M. F.), is very high. We say that an ordinary gravity cell has an E. M. F. of a little over one volt. Five such cells joined in the proper way would have an E. M. F. of a little over five volts. You will understand, then, what is meant when we say that the E. M. F. of a lightning flash is millions of volts.

=18. Atmospheric Electricity.= The air is usually electrified, even in clear weather, although its cause is not thoroughly understood. In 1752 it was proved by Benjamin Franklin (Fig. 15), with his famous kite experiment, that atmospheric and frictional electricities are of the same nature. By means of a kite, the string being wet by the rain, he succeeded, during a thunderstorm, in drawing sparks, charging condensers, etc.

=19. Lightning= may be produced by the passage of electricity between clouds, or between a cloud and the earth (Fig. 16), which, with the intervening air, have the effect of a condenser. When the attraction between the two electrifications gets great enough, a spark passes. When the spark has a zigzag motion it is called _chain lightning_. In hot weather flashes are often seen which light whole clouds, no thunder being heard. This is called _heat lightning_, and is generally considered to be due to distant discharges, the light of which is reflected by the clouds. The lightning flash represents billions of volts.

=20. Thunder= is caused by the violent disturbances produced in the air by lightning. Clouds, hills, etc., produce echoes, which, with the original sound, make the rolling effect.

=21. Lightning-Rods=, when well constructed, often prevent violent discharges. Their pointed prongs at the top allow the negative electricity of the earth to pass quietly into the air to neutralize the positive in the cloud above. In case of a discharge, or stroke of lightning, the rods aid in conducting the electricity to the earth. The ends of the rods are placed deep in the earth, Fig. 17.

=22. St. Elmo's Fire.= Electrification from the earth is often drawn up from the earth through the masts of ships, Fig. 18, to neutralize that in the clouds, and, as it escapes from the points of the masts, light is produced.

=23. Aurora Borealis=, also called Northern Lights, are luminous effects, Fig. 19, often seen in the north. They often occur at the same time with magnetic storms, when telegraph and telephone work may be disturbed. The exact cause of this light is not known, but it is thought by many to be due to disturbances in the earth's magnetism caused by the action of the sun.

ABOUT MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM.

=24. Natural Magnets.= Hundreds of years ago it was discovered that a certain ore of iron, called lodestone, had the power of picking up small pieces of iron. It was used to indicate the north and south line, and it was discovered later that small pieces of steel could be permanently magnetized by rubbing them upon the lodestone.

=25. Artificial Magnets.= Pieces of steel, when magnetized, are called artificial magnets. They are made in many forms. The electromagnet is also an artificial magnet; this will be treated separately.

=26. The Horseshoe Magnet=, Fig. 20, is, however, the one with which we are the most familiar. They are always painted red, but the red paint has nothing to do with the magnetism.

The little end-piece is called the keeper, or armature; it should always be kept in place when the magnet is not in use. The magnet itself is made of steel, while the armature is made of soft iron. Steel retains magnetism for a long time, while soft iron loses it almost instantly. The ends of the magnet are called its _poles_, and nearly all the strength of the magnet seems to reside at the poles, the curved part having no attraction for outside bodies. One of the poles of the magnet is marked with a line, or with the letter N. This is called the north pole of the magnet, the other being its south pole.

=27. Bar Magnets= are straight magnets. Fig. 21 shows a round bar magnet. The screw in the end is for use in the telephone, described later.

=28. Compound Magnets.= When several thin steel magnets are riveted together, a compound magnet is formed. These can be made with considerable strength. Fig. 22 shows a compound horseshoe magnet. Fig. 23 shows a form of compound bar magnet used in telephones. The use of the coil of wire will be explained later. A thick piece of steel can not be magnetized through and through. In the compound magnet we have the effect of a thick magnet practically magnetized through and through.

=29. Magnetic and Diamagnetic Bodies.= Iron, and substances containing iron, are the ones most readily attracted by a magnet. Iron is said to be _magnetic_. Some substances, like nickel, for example, are visibly attracted by very strong magnets only. Strange as it may seem, some substances are actually repelled by strong magnets; these are called _diamagnetic_ bodies. Brass, copper, zinc, etc., are not visibly affected by a magnet. Magnetism will act through paper, glass, copper, lead, etc.

=30. Making Magnets.= One of the strangest properties that a magnet has is its power to give magnetism to another piece of steel. If a sewing-needle be properly rubbed upon one of the poles of a magnet, it will become strongly magnetized and will retain its magnetism for years. Strong permanent magnets are made with the aid of electromagnets. Any number of little magnets may be made from a horseshoe magnet without injuring it.

31. Magnetic Needles and Compasses. If a bar magnet be suspended by a string, or floated upon a cork, which can easily be done with the magnet made from a sewing-needle, Fig. 24, it will swing around until its poles point north and south. Such an arrangement is called a _magnetic needle_. In the regular _compass_, a magnetic needle is supported upon a pivot. Compasses have been used for many centuries by mariners and others. Fig. 25 shows an ordinary pocket compass, and Fig. 26 a form of mariner's compass, in which the small bar magnets are fastened to a card which floats, the whole being so mounted that it keeps a horizontal position, even though the vessel rocks.

32. Action of Magnets Upon Each Other. By making two small sewing-needle magnets, you can easily study the laws of attraction and repulsion. By bringing the two north poles, or the two south poles, near each other, a repulsion will be noticed. Unlike poles attract each other. The attraction between a magnet and iron is mutual; that is, each attracts the other. Either pole of a magnet attracts soft iron.

In magnetizing a needle, either end may be made a north pole at will; in fact, the poles of a weak magnet can easily be reversed by properly rubbing it upon a stronger magnet.

=33. Theory of Magnetism.= Each little particle of a piece of steel or iron is supposed to be a magnet, even before it touches a magnet. When these little magnets are thoroughly mixed up in the steel, they pull in all sorts of directions upon each other and tend to keep the steel from attracting outside bodies. When a magnet is properly rubbed upon a bar of steel, the north poles of the little molecular magnets of the steel are all made to point in the same direction. As the north poles help each other, the whole bar can attract outside bodies.

By jarring a magnet its molecules are thoroughly shaken up; in fact, most of the magnetism can be knocked out of a weak magnet by hammering it.

=34. Retentivity.= The power that a piece of steel has to hold magnetism is called _retentivity_. Different kinds of steel have different retentivities. A sewing-needle of good steel will retain magnetism for years, and it is almost impossible to knock the magnetism out by hammering it. Soft steel has very little retentivity, because it does not contain much carbon. Soft iron, which contains less carbon than steel, holds magnetism very poorly; so it is not used for permanent magnets. A little magnetism, however, will remain in the soft iron after it is removed from a magnet. This is called _residual magnetism_.

=35. Heat and Magnetism.= Steel will completely lose its magnetism when heated to redness, and a magnet will not attract red-hot iron. The molecules of a piece of red-hot iron are in such a state of rapid vibration that they refuse to be brought into line by the magnet.

=36. Induced Magnetism.= A piece of soft iron may be induced to become a magnet by holding it near a magnet, absolute contact not being necessary. When the soft iron is removed, again, from the influence of the magnet, its magnetism nearly all disappears. It is said to have _temporary_ magnetism; it had _induced_ magnetism. If a piece of soft iron be held near the north pole of a magnet, as in Fig. 27, poles will be produced in the soft iron, the one nearest the magnet being the south pole, and the other the north pole.

=37. Magnetic Field.= If a bar magnet be laid upon the table, and a compass be moved about it, the compass-needle will be attracted by the magnet, and it will point in a different direction for every position given to the compass. This strange power, called magnetism, reaches out on all sides of a magnet. The magnet may be said to act by induction upon the compass-needle. The space around the magnet, in which this inductive action takes place, is called the _magnetic field_. Fig. 28 shows some of the positions taken by a compass-needle when moved about on one side of a bar magnet.

=38. Magnetic Figures= can be made by sprinkling iron filings upon a sheet of paper under which is placed a magnet. Fig. 29 shows a magnetic figure made with an ordinary bar magnet. The magnet was placed upon the table and over this was laid a piece of smooth paper. Fine iron filings were sifted upon the paper, which was gently tapped so that the filings could arrange themselves. As each particle of iron became a little magnet, by induction, its poles were attracted and repelled by the magnet; and when the paper was tapped they swung around to their final positions. Notice that the filings have arranged themselves in lines. These lines show the positions of some of the _lines of magnetic force_ which surrounded the magnet.

These lines of force pass from the north pole of a magnet through the air on all sides to its south pole.

Fig. 30 shows a magnetic figure made from two bar magnets placed side by side, their unlike poles being next to each other. Fig. 31 shows the magnetic figure of a horseshoe magnet with round poles, the poles being uppermost.

=39. The Use of Armatures.= A magnet attracts iron most strongly at its poles, because it is at the poles that the greatest number of lines of force pass into the air. Lines of force pass easily through soft iron, which is said to be a good conductor of them. Air is not a good conductor of the lines of force; in order, then, for the lines of force to pass from the north pole of a magnet to its south pole, they must overcome this resistance of the air, unless the armature is in place. A magnet will gradually grow weaker when its armature is left off.