Nuclear Clocks Revised — Themes and Context

The Understanding the Atom Series

Nuclear Energy is playing a vital role in the life of every man, woman, and child in the United States today. In the years ahead it will affect increasingly all the peoples of the earth. It is essential that all Americans gain an understanding of this vital force if they are to discharge thoughtfully their responsibilities as citizens and if they are to realize fully the myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers them.

The United States Atomic Energy Commission provides this booklet to help you achieve such understanding.

Edward J. Brunenkant, Director Division of Technical Information

UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman James T. Ramey Wilfrid E. Johnson Francesco Costagliola

INTRODUCTION 1 THEORY OF NUCLEAR AGE DETERMINATION 5 THE CARBON-14 CLOCK 9 Carbon-14 Counting 12 Carbon-14 Results 15 THE LONG-LIVED CLOCKS 19 The Rubidium-Strontium Clock 20 The Uranium Fission Clock 24 Plumbology 27 THE AGE OF THE EARTH 27 Analytical Techniques 31 Minerals That Can Be Dated 34 SOME INTERESTING RESULTS 40 The Old Man From Olduvai 40 The Geologic Time Scale 41 Precambrian Stratigraphy 47 AND WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE? 48 GLOSSARY 49 APPENDIX 52 SUGGESTED REFERENCES 58

United States Atomic Energy Commission Division of Technical Information Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-60195 1966; 1968(Rev.)

_How old is the earth?_

It would be difficult to find a reason why anyone would really have to know the answers to these questions, yet they have been asked over and over again since the dawn of human society. The records of every civilization disclose attempts to delve into the past beyond the memory of the oldest man, beyond recorded history, beyond earliest legend.

Curiosity about the remote past may be very ancient, but the only reliable method of measuring very long intervals of time is new. The possibility of doing so became apparent only after the discovery of RADIOACTIVITY[1] in 1896 by Henri Becquerel, when Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898 recognized that some atoms are radioactive and change by themselves into other atoms at regular and constant rates. If something gradually transforms itself into something else, if this transformation goes on at a known pace, and if all the products of the activity are preserved in some kind of a CLOSED SYSTEM, then it is theoretically possible to calculate the time that has elapsed since the process started. The theory was clear for years; the only problem was how to satisfy all those ifs.

By 1910 it was well established that the earth must be extremely ancient. Analyses of some minerals containing uranium showed them to be hundreds of millions of years old, even though the uranium came from rocks that were known to be relatively young among geologic STRATA. Measurements still were inaccurate, however, and only a few rare and unusually rich radioactive minerals contained enough of the products of RADIOACTIVE DECAY[2] to allow analysis of their age by the crude methods then available.

Not much progress was made for about 30 years until A. O. C. Nier, a Harvard University physicist, perfected an instrument called a MASS SPECTROMETER (to be described later) just before World War II. The rapid technological advances of the war years followed. The Manhattan Project[3] made the atomic bombs that ended the fighting; it also developed new scientific techniques that could be applied, when peace returned, to the measurement of geologic time.

The next important advance was contributed in 1946 by Arthur Holmes in England and by F. G. Houtermans in Germany. Each of these scientists had seen Nier’s reports before the war and had realized that Nier’s mass-spectrometer analyses of lead made it possible, for the first time, to make rational calculations about the age of the earth. The two scientists independently calculated that age at about 2 to 3 billion years, using the handful of data available to them from Nier’s measurements. It is interesting that today, thousands of analyses later, our planet’s age usually is given as 4.5 billion years. The early estimates were not far off.

Development of various methods for measuring the age of minerals followed rapidly, and by 1955 many fundamental studies needed for measuring the age of very old substances were complete. The basic techniques are summarized in Table I. They will be explained later. The new methods produced broad confirmation of the early rough estimates and they also brought a few surprises.

Before we go into these discoveries, let us look at some theoretical foundations.

Table I BASIC MEASUREMENT METHODS Method Material Time Dated Useful Time Span (years) Carbon-14 Wood, peat, When plant died 1000-50,000 charcoal Bone, shell Slightly before 2000-35,000 animal died Potassium-argon Mica, some When rock last 100,000 and up whole rocks cooled to about 300°C Hornblende When rock last 10,000,000 and up