Auroræ: Their Characters and Spectra — Inside the Classic

The Aurora as known to the Ancients: pp. 1-5.

Some general Descriptions of Auroræ: pp. 6-15.

By Sir John Franklin: pp. 6, 7.

By Rev. James Farquharson: pp. 7, 8.

By Mons. Lottin (Lardner): pp. 8-11.

By Lieut. Weyprecht (Payer): pp. 11-14.

Article in ‘Edinburgh Encyclopædia:’ pp. 14, 15.

Some specific Descriptions of Auroræ: pp. 16-30.

Capt. Sabine’s Auroræ: p. 16.

Aurora seen at Sunderland, February 8th, 1817: p. 16.

Dr. Hayes’s Aurora, 6th January, 1861: pp. 16, 17.

Prof. Lemström’s Aurora, 1st September, 1868: pp. 17, 18.

Mr. J. R. Capron’s Aurora, October 24th, 1870: pp. 18, 19.

Mr. Barker’s red and white Auroræ, 9th November (1870?): p. 19.

Mr. J. R. Capron’s Aurora, February 4th, 1872: pp. 19, 20.

Cardiff, Aurora seen at: p. 21.

Mr. J. R. Capron’s Aurora, February 4th, 1874: pp. 21, 22.

Mr. Herbert Ingall’s Aurora, July 18th, 1874: pp. 22, 23.

Mr. J. R. Capron’s white Aurora, September 11th, 1874: pp. 23, 24.

Dr. Allnatt’s Aurora, June 9th, 1876: p. 24.

Herr Carl Bock’s Lapland Aurora, October 3rd, 1877: p. 25.

Rev. T. W. Webb’s Aurora: pp. 25, 26.

English Arctic Expedition, 1875-76: p. 26.

Aurora Australis: pp. 26-29.

Prof. Piazzi Smyth’s typical Auroræ: pp. 29, 30.

Phenomena simulating Auroræ: pp. 31-32.

Auroric Lights (Kinahan): pp. 31, 32.

Luminous Arch: p. 32.

Some qualities of the Aurora: pp. 33-51.

Noises attending Auroræ: pp. 33, 34.

Colours of Aurora: pp. 35-37.

Height of Aurora: pp. 37-40.

Phosphorescence attending Aurora: pp. 41-44.

Aurora and Ozone: pp. 44, 45.

Polarization of Aurora light: pp. 45, 46.

Number of Auroræ: p. 46.

Duration of Aurora: p. 47.

Travelling of Auroræ (Donati): pp. 47, 48.

Geographical distribution of Auroræ (Fritz and Loomis): pp. 48, 49.

Extent and principal zone of the Aurora: pp. 50, 51.

Aurora in connexion with other Phenomena: pp. 52-69.

Auroræ and Clouds: pp. 52-54.

Aurora and Thunder-storms: pp. 54, 55.

Aurora and Magnetic Needle: pp. 55-58.

Auroræ, Magnetic Disturbances, and Sun-spots: pp. 58-62.

Aurora and Electricity: pp. 62-64.

Aurora and Meteoric Dust: pp. 64, 65.

Aurora and Planets Venus and Jupiter: pp. 66, 67.

Aurora and Zodiacal Light: pp. 67-69.

Aurora-like patches on the partially-eclipsed Moon: pp. 70-77.

Aurora and Solar Corona: pp. 78-81.

Supposed Causes of the Aurora: pp. 82-87.

Prof. Lemström’s Theory: pp. 87, 88.

Theories of MM. Becquerel and De la Rive: p. 88.

M. Planté’s electric experiments: pp. 89, 90.

THE SPECTRUM OF THE AURORA.

Spectroscope adapted for the Aurora: pp. 91-93.

Spectrum of Aurora described: pp. 94-100.

Flickering of the green line: p. 100.

Mr. Backhouse’s graphical spectra of four Auroræ: p. 101.

Lord Lindsay’s Aurora-spectrum, October 21, 1870: p. 102.

Spectrum of the Aurora Australis: pp. 103, 104.

Professor Piazzi Smyth’s Aurora-spectra: p. 104.

Author’s Catalogue of the Auroral lines: pp. 104-106.

Theories in relation to the Aurora and its spectrum: pp. 106, 107.

The comparison of some Tube and other Spectra with the Spectrum of the Aurora: pp. 108-120.

Hydrogen-tube: pp. 108-110.

Carbon- and oxygen-tubes: pp. 110-114.

Geissler mercury-tube and barometer mercurial vacuum: pp. 114, 115.

Air-tubes: pp. 115, 116.

Phosphorescent tube: pp. 116, 117.

Spark in air: p. 117.

Spark over water: p. 117.

Phosphoretted-hydrogen flame: pp. 117, 118.

Iron-spectrum: p. 118.

Spectrum of mercury: p. 119.

Table of coincidences: p. 119.

Notes on Professor Ångström’s Theory of the Aurora-spectrum: pp. 121-127.

The Oxygen-spectrum in relation to the Aurora (Procter and Schuster): pp. 128-131.

MAGNETO-ELECTRIC EXPERIMENTS IN CONNEXION WITH THE AURORA.

INTRODUCTION: pp. 133-135.

Examination of Geissler-tubes under action of the Magnet: pp. 136-146.

Nitrogen-tubes: pp. 136, 137.

Oxygen-tubes: p. 138.

Hydrogen-tubes: pp. 138, 139.

Water-gas tube: p. 139.

Ammonia-tube: pp. 139, 140.

Carbonic-acid tube: p. 140.

Chlorine-tubes: pp. 140, 141.

Iodine-tubes: pp. 141-143.

Bromine-tubes: pp. 143, 144.

Silicic fluoride-tubes: p. 144.

Sulphuric-acid tubes: pp. 144, 145.

Sulphur-tube: pp. 145, 146.

Effect of Magnet on a capillary Glass Tube: pp. 147, 148.

Action of magnet on a bar of heavy glass: pp. 147, 148.

Effect of Magnet on wide Air (Aurora) tube: pp. 149-153.

Stratification (note on): pp. 149, 150.

Effect of magnet on Plücker (air-) tube: pp. 150-152.

Effect of magnet on Plücker tube (tin chloride): pp. 152, 153.

Effect of magnet on tin-chloride Geissler tube: p. 153.

Effect of Magnet on bulbed Phosphorescent Tube: pp. 154-156.

Effect of magnet on small phosphorescent (powder) tubes: pp. 156, 157.

Lighting-up tubes with one wire only (Marquis of Salisbury’s observations): pp. 157, 158.

Action of the Magnet on the Electric Spark: pp. 159, 160.

The Discharge _in vacuo_ in Larger Vessels, and Magnetic Effects thereon: pp. 161-165.

Some of Baron Reichenbach’s magnetic researches tested: pp. 165, 166.

Summary of the foregoing Experiments and their Results: p. 167.

Some concluding Remarks: pp. 168-171.

A. References to some Works and Essays on the Aurora: pp. 173, 174.

B. Extracts from the Manual and Instructions for the (English) Arctic Expedition, 1875: pp. 175-181.

C. Extracts from Parliamentary Blue-book, containing the “Results derived from the Arctic Expedition, 1875-76:” pp. 182-188.

D. Aurora and Ozone: pp. 189-193.

E. Dr. Vogel’s Inquiries into the Spectrum of the Aurora: pp. 194-207.

I. The Aurora during the Ice-pressure _To face page_ 14

II. Aurora seen by Dr. Hayes, 6th January, 1861 ” ” 16

III. Aurora, Guildford, Oct. 24, 1870 ” ” 18

IV. Aurora, Guildford, Feb. 4, 1872; Eclipsed Moon, Aug. 23, 24, 1877 ” ” 20

V. Corona, Graphical Auroræ, Zodiacal Light, &c. ” ” 21

VI. Aurora, Guildford, Feb. 4, 1874; Spectrum des Nordlichts (Vogel) ” ” 22

VII. Aurora, Kyle Akin, Isle of Skye, Sept. 11, 1874 ” ” 24

VIII. Herr Carl Bock’s Lapland Aurora, Oct. 3, 1877 ” ” 25

IX. Compared Aurora and other Spectra. Loomis’s curves of Auroras, Magnetic Declination, and Solar Spots ” ” 59

X. Spectroscope, Micrometer, Tubes ” ” 91

XI. Aurora-spectra, Candle-spectrum ” ” 102

XII. Aurora-spectrum, Solar spectrum, and Candle-spectrum ” ” 104

XIII. Vogel’s Aurora-lines, Aurora-lines near G, and in the red and green ” ” 108

XIV. Aurora, Hydrocarbons, Oxygen ” ” 110

XV. Aurora and Air-tubes, &c. ” ” 115

XVI. Aurora, Phosphoretted Hydrogen, Iron, &c. ” ” 117

XVII. Effect of Magnet on Tubes and Spark ” ” 134

XVIII. Same, and Oxygen-spectrum ” ” 154

THE AURORA AND ITS CHARACTERS.

THE AURORA AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS.

[Sidenote: Seneca’s ‘Quæstiones Naturales,’ Lib. I. c. xiv. Description of Auroræ.]

In Seneca’s ‘Quæstiones Naturales,’ Lib. I. c. xiv., we find the following:—“Tempus est, alios quoque ignes percurrere, quorum diversæ figuræ sunt. Aliquando emicat stella, aliquando ardores sunt, aliquando fixi et hærentes, nonnunquam volubiles. Horum plura genera conspiciantur. Sunt _Bothynoë_[1], quum velut corona cingente introrsus igneus cœli recessus est similis effossæ in orbem speluncæ. Sunt _Pithitæ_[2], quum magnitudo vasti rotundique ignis dolio similis, vel fertur vel in uno loco flagrat. Sunt _Chasmata_[3], quum aliquod cœli spatium desedit, et flammam dehiscens, velut in abdito, ostentat. Colores quoque omnium horum plurimi sunt. Quidam ruboris acerrimi, quidam evanidæ ac levis flammæ, quidam candidæ lucis, quidam micantes, quidam æqualiter et sine eruptionibus aut radiis fulvi.

[Sidenote: Seneca, c. xv.]

C. xv. “Inter hæc ponas licet et quod frequenter in historiis legimus, cœlum ardere visum: cujus nonnunquam tam sublimis ardor est ut inter ipsa sidera videatur, nonnunquam tam humilis ut speciem longinqui incendii præbeat.

“Sub Tiberio Cæsare cohortes in auxilium Ostiensis coloniæ cucurrerunt, tanquam conflagrantis, quum cœli ardor fuisset per magnam partem noctis, parum lucidus crassi fumidique ignis.”

[Sidenote: Translation.]

We may translate this:—“It is time other fires also to describe, of which there are diverse forms.

“Sometimes a star shines forth; at times there are fire-glows, sometimes fixed and persistent, sometimes flitting. Of these many sorts may be distinguished. There are Bothynoë, when, as within a surrounding corona, the fiery recess of the sky is like to a cave dug out of space. There are Pithitæ, when the expanse of a vast and rounded fire similar to a tub (dolium) is either carried about or glows in one spot.

“There are Chasmata, when a certain portion of the sky opens, and gaping displays the flame as in a porch. The colours also of all these are many. Certain are of the brightest red, some of a flitting and light flame-colour, some of a white light, others shining, some steadily and yellow without eruptions or rays.

“Amongst these we may notice, what we frequently read of in history, the sky is seen to burn, the glow of which is occasionally so high that it may be seen amongst the stars themselves, sometimes so near the Earth (humilis) that it assumes the form of a distant fire. Under Tiberius Cæsar the cohorts ran together in aid of the colony of Ostia as if it were in flames, when the glowing of the sky lasted through a great part of the night, shining dimly like a vast and smoking fire.”

[Sidenote: Auroræ frequently read of in history.]

From the above passages many striking particulars of the Aurora may be gathered; and by the division of the forms of Aurora into classes it is evident they were, at that period, the subject of frequent observation. The expression “et quod frequenter in historiis legimus” shows, too, that the phenomena of Auroral displays were a matter of record and discussion with the writers of the day.

Various forms of Aurora may be recognized in the passages from Chap. xiv.; while in those from Chap. xv. a careful distinction is drawn between the Auroræ seen in the zenith or the upper regions of the sky, and those seen on the horizon or apparently (and no doubt in some cases actually) near the Earth’s surface.

[Sidenote: A spurious Aurora.]

The description of the cohorts running to the fire only to find it an Aurora, calls to mind the many similar events happening in our own days. Not, however, but that a mistake may sometimes occur in an opposite direction. In the memoirs of Baron Stockmar an amusing anecdote is related of one Herr von Radowitz, who was given to making the most of easily picked up information. A friend of the Baron’s went to an evening party near Frankfort, where he expected to meet Herr von Radowitz. On his way he saw a barn burning, stopped his carriage, assisted the people, and waited till the flames were nearly extinguished. When he arrived at his friend’s house he found Herr von Radowitz, who had previously taken the party to the top of the building to see an Aurora, dilating on terrestrial magnetism, electricity, and so forth. Radowitz asked Stockmar’s friend, “Have you seen the beautiful Aurora Borealis?” He replied, “Certainly; I was there myself; it will soon be over.” An explanation followed as to the barn on fire: Radowitz was silent some ten minutes, then took up his hat and quietly disappeared.

[Sidenote: Auroræ as portents.]

It is probable that many of the phantom combats which are recorded to have appeared in forms of fire in the air on the evenings preceding great battles might be traced to Auroræ, invested with distinct characteristics by the imagination of the beholders. Auroræ are said to have appeared in the shape of armies of horse and foot engaged in battle in the sky before the death of Julius Cæsar, which they were supposed to foretell. For more than a year before the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian, the Aurora was said to have been frequently visible in Palestine.

Josephus, in his ‘Wars of the Jews’ (Whiston’s Translation, Book VI. chap. v. sect. 3), in referring to the signs and wonders preceding the destruction of Jerusalem, speaks of a star or comet, and that a great light shone round about the altar and the holy house, which light lasted for half an hour, and that a few days after the feast of unleavened bread a certain prodigious and incredible phenomenon appeared—“for before sunsetting chariots and troops of soldiers in their armour were seen running about among the clouds, and surrounding of cities.” (This, if an Aurora, must have been an instance of a daylight one.)

We find in Book II. of Maccabees, chap. v. verses 1, 2, 3, 4 (B.C. about 176 years):—

“1. About this same time Antiochus prepared his second voyage into Egypt:

“2. And then it happened that through all the city, for the space almost of forty days, there were seen horsemen running in the air, in cloth of gold, and armed with lances like a band of soldiers.

“3. And troops of horsemen in array, encountering and running one against another, with shaking of shields and multitude of pikes, and drawing of swords and casting of darts, and glittering of golden ornaments and harness of all sorts.

“4. Wherefore every man prayed that that apparition might turn to good.”

[Sidenote: Early descriptions of Auroræ.]

In Aristotle’s ‘De Meteoris,’ Lib. I. c. iv. and v., the Aurora is described as an appearance resembling flame mingled with smoke, and of a purple red or blue colour. Pliny (Lib. II. c. xxvii.) speaks of a bloody appearance of the heavens which seemed like a fire descending on the earth, seen in the third year of the 107th Olympiad, and of a light seen in the nighttime equal to the brightness of the day, in the Consulship of Cæcilius and Papirius (Lib. II. c. xxxiii.), both of which may be referred to Auroræ.

In the ‘Annals of Philosophy,’ vol. ix. p. 250, it is stated that the Aurora among English writers is first described by Matthew of Westminster, who relates that in A.D. 555 lances were seen in the air (“quasi species lancearum in aëre visæ sunt a septentrionali usque ad occidentem”).

In the article in the ‘Edinb. Encyc.’ vol. iii. (1830), the Aurora (known to the vulgar as “streamers” or “merry dancers”) is distinguished in two kinds—the “tranquil” and the “varying.” Musschenbroek enumerates as forms:—_trabs_, “the beam,” an oblong tract parallel to the horizon; _sagitta_, “the arrow;” _faces_, “the torch;” _capra saltans_, “the dancing goat;” _bothynoë_, “the cave,” a luminous cloud having the appearance of a recess or hollow in the heavens, surrounded by a corona; _pithiæ_, “the tun,” an Aurora resembling a large luminous _cask_. The two sorts of Auroræ distinguished as the “bothynoë” and “pithiæ” are evidently taken from the passage in Seneca’s ‘Quæstiones’ before quoted. In ‘Liberti Fromondi Meteorologicorum’ (London, 1656), Lib. II. cap. v. “De Meteoris supremæ regionis aëris,” art. 1. De Capra, Trabe, Pyramide, &c., these and other fantastic forms attributable to Auroræ are more fully described.

In the article “Aurora Polaris,” Encyc. Brit. edit. ix., we find noted that from a curious passage in Sirr’s ‘Ceylon and the Cingalese,’ vol. ii. p. 117, it would seem that the Aurora, or something like it, is visible occasionally in Ceylon, where the natives call it “Buddha Lights,” and that in many parts of Ireland a scarlet Aurora is supposed to be a shower of blood. The earliest mentioned Aurora (in Ireland) was in 688, in the ‘Annals of Cloon-mac-noise,’ after a battle between Leinster and Munster, in which Foylcher O’Moyloyer was slain.

In the article in the Edinb. Encyc. before referred to it is stated that it was not much more than a century ago that the phenomenon had been noticed to occur with frequency in our latitudes.

Dr. Halley had begun to despair of seeing one till the fine display of 1716.

[Sidenote: Early notices of Auroræ not frequent in our latitudes.]

The first account on record in an English work is said to be in a book entitled ‘A Description of Meteors by W. F. D. D.’ (reprinted, London, 1654), which speaks of “burning spears” being seen January 30, 1560. The next is recorded by Stow as occurring on October 7, 1564; and, according to Stow and Camden, an Aurora was seen on two nights, 14th and 15th November, 1574.

Twice, again, an Aurora was seen in Brabant, 13th February and 28th September, 1575. Cornelius Gemma compared these to spears, fortified cities, and armies fighting in the air. Auroræ were seen in 1580 and 1581 in Wirtemberg, Germany.

Then we have no record till 1621, when an Aurora, described by Gassendi in his ‘Physics,’ was seen all over France, September 2nd of that year.

In November 1623 another, described by Kepler, was seen all over Germany.

From 1666 to 1716 no appearance is recorded in the ‘Transactions of the French Academy of Sciences;’ but in 1707 one was seen in Ireland and at Copenhagen; while in 1707 and 1708 the Aurora was seen five times.

The Aurora of 1716, occurring after an interval of eighty years, which Dr. Halley describes, was very brilliant and extended over much country, being seen from the west of Ireland to the confines of Russia and the east of Poland, extending nearly 30° of longitude, and from about the 50th degree of latitude, over almost all the north of Europe, and in all places exhibiting at the same time appearances similar to those observed in London. An Aurora observed in Bologna in 1723 was stated to be the first that had ever been seen there; and one recorded in the ‘Berlin Miscellany’ for 1797 is called a very unusual phenomenon. Nor did Auroræ appear more frequent in the Polar Regions at that time, for Cælius states that the oldest inhabitants of Upsala considered the phenomenon as quite rare before 1716. Anderson, of Hamburg, writing about the same time, says that in Iceland the inhabitants themselves were astonished at the frequent Auroræ then beginning to take place; while Torfæus, the Icelander, who wrote in 1706, was old enough to remember the time when the Aurora was an object of terror in his native country.

According to M. Mairan, 1441 Auroræ were observed between A.D. 583 and 1751, of which 972 were observed in the winter half-years and 469 during the summer half-years. In our next Chapter we propose to give some general descriptions of Auroræ from comparatively early sources.

SOME GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS OF AURORÆ.

[Sidenote: Sir John Franklin’s description.]

Sir John Franklin (‘Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea in the years 1819, 1820, 1821, 1822’) describes an Aurora in these terms:—

[Sidenote: Parts of the Aurora: beams, flashes, and arches.]

“For the sake of perspicuity I shall describe the several parts of the Aurora, which I term beams, flashes, and arches.

“The beams are little conical pencils of light, ranged in parallel lines, with their pointed extremities towards the earth, generally in the direction of the dipping-needle.

[Sidenote: Formation of the Aurora.]

“The flashes seem to be scattered beams approaching nearer to the earth, because they are similarly shaped and infinitely larger. I have called them flashes, because their appearance is sudden and seldom continues long. When the Aurora first becomes visible it is formed like a rainbow, the light of which is faint, and the motion of the beams undistinguishable. It is then in the horizon. As it approaches the zenith it resolves itself into beams which, by a quick undulating motion, project themselves into wreaths, afterwards fading away, and again and again brightening without any visible expansion or contraction of matter. Numerous flashes attend in different parts of the sky.”

[Sidenote: Arches of the Aurora.]

Sir John Franklin then points out that this mass would appear like an arch to a person situated at the horizon by the rules of perspective, assuming its parts to be equidistant from the earth; and mentions a case when an Aurora, which filled the sky at Cumberland House from the northern horizon to the zenith with wreaths and flashes, assumed the shape of arches at some distance to the southward. He then continues:—“But the Aurora does not always make its first appearance as an arch. It sometimes rises from a confused mass of light in the east or west, and crosses the sky towards the opposite point, exhibiting wreaths of beams or coronæ boreales on its way. An arch also, which is pale and uniform at the horizon, passes the zenith without displaying any irregularity or additional brilliancy.” Sir John Franklin then mentions seeing three arches together, very near the northern horizon, one of which exhibited beams and even colours, but the other two were faint and uniform. (See example of a doubled arc Aurora observed at Kyle Akin, Skye, Plate VII.)

He also mentions an arch visible to the southward exactly similar to one in the north. It appeared in fifteen minutes, and he suggests it probably had passed the zenith before sunset. The motion of the whole body of the Aurora from the northward to the southward was at angles not more than 20° from the magnetic meridian. The centres of the arches were as often in the magnetic as in the true meridian. A delicate electrometer, suspended 50 feet from the ground, was never perceptibly affected by the Aurora.

[Sidenote: Aurora does not often appear until some hours after sunset.]

Sir John Franklin further remarks that the Aurora did not often appear immediately after sunset, and that the absence of that luminary for some hours was in general required for the production of a state of atmosphere favourable to the generation of the Aurora.

[Sidenote: Aurora seen in daylight.]

On one occasion, however (March 8th, 1821), he observed it distinctly previous to the disappearance of daylight; and he subsequently states that on four occasions the coruscations of the Aurora were seen very distinctly before daylight had disappeared.

[In the article “Aurora Polaris,” Encyc. Brit. edit. ix., the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, 1788, are referred to, where Dr. Usher notices that the Aurora makes the stars flutter in the telescope; and that, having remarked this effect strongly one day at 11 A.M., he examined the sky, and saw an Auroral corona with rays to the horizon.

Instances are by no means rare of the principal Aurora-line having been seen in waning sunlight, and in anticipation of an Aurora which afterwards appeared.]

[Sidenote: The Rev. James Farquharson’s observations. Auroral arch. Passage across the zenith.]